Keywords
ESG factors
economy
society
environment
governance
How to Cite
Abstract
This study examines the nexus between the degree of implementation of SDGs across three dimensions: Society, Environment, and Good Governance and the achieved level of economic development in EU countries. Using the TOPSIS method, measures of sustainable development were constructed based on SDG and World Bank data for 2013 and 2023. Correlation analysis was used to compare the relationship between economic development and the three ESG dimensions. While most countries have improved their economic performance and environmental indicators, almost all have experienced a decline in social indicators. Of the areas identified, only a positive correlation was found between the economy and society. Governance factors showed strong correlations with economic development only in 2013. The research reveals that economic growth alone does not guarantee sustainability across ESG factors. Policymakers must adopt integrated strategies coordinating economic, social, environmental, and governance policies simultaneously to ensure sustainable development. This study fills a research gap by providing a comprehensive three-dimensional ESG analysis of SDG implementation levels relative to economic development.
References
Abad-Segura, E., Batlles-de la Fuente, A., González-Zamar, M.-D., & Belmonte-Ureña, L. J. (2020). Effects of circular economy policies on the environment and sustainable growth: Worldwide research. Sustainability, 12(14), 5792. https://doi.org/10.3390/su12145792
Acemoglu, D., & Robinson, J. (2010). The role of institutions in growth and development (World Bank Working Paper). World Bank. http://documents.worldbank.org/curated/en/232971468326415075
Adamowicz, M. (2022). Green Deal, green growth and green economy as a means of support for attaining the sustainable development goals. Sustainability, 14(10), 5901. https://doi.org/10.3390/su14105901
Adipat, S., & Chotikapanich, R. (2022). Sustainable Development Goal 4: An education goal to achieve equitable quality education. Academic Journal of Interdisciplinary Studies, 11(6), 174–183. https://doi.org/10.36941/ajis-2022-0159
Agbakwuru, V., Obidi, P. O., Salihu, S. O., & Ogwu, C. M. J. (2024). The role of renewable energy in achieving sustainable development goals. International Journal of Engineering Research Updates, 7(2), 13–27. https://doi.org/10.53430/ijeru.2024.7.2.0046
Allen, C., Metternicht, G., & Wiedmann, T. (2018). Initial progress in implementing the sustainable development goals (SDGs): A review of evidence from countries. Sustainability Science, 13(5), 1453–1467. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11625-018-0572-3
Altaf, A., Anwar, M. A., Shahzad, U., & Bilan, Y. (2025). Exploring the nexus among green finance, renewable energy and environmental sustainability: Evidence from OECD economies. Renewable Energy, 244, 122589. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.renene.2025.122589
Alvaredo, F., Chancel, L., Piketty, T., Saez, E., & Zucman, G. (2018). The elephant curve of global inequality and growth. AEA Papers and Proceedings, 108, 103–108. https://www.jstor.org/stable/26452714
Apel, H. (2020). Inequality in development: The 2030 Agenda, SDG 10 and the role of redistribution. Real-World Economics Review, 92, 228–237.
Bąk, A. (2016). Porządkowanie liniowe obiektów metodą Hellwiga i TOPSIS – analiza porównawcza. Prace Naukowe Uniwersytetu Ekonomicznego we Wrocławiu, 426, 22–31. https://doi.org/10.15611/pn.2016.426.02 (in Polish).
Bhandari, M. P. (2024). What is next for the sustainable development goals, what are the challenges concerning SDG 10 – reduced inequalities? Sustainable Earth Reviews, 7, 23. https://doi.org/10.1186/s42055-024-00093-8
Boeren, E. (2019). Understanding Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) 4 on “quality education” from micro, meso and macro perspectives. International Review of Education, 65(2), 277–294. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11159-019-09772-7
Bogers, M., Biermann, F., Kalfagianni, A., & Kim, R. E. (2023). The SDGs as integrating force in global governance? Challenges and opportunities. International Environmental Agreements: Politics, Law and Economics, 23(2), 157–164. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10784-023-09607-9
Borghys, K., Rayp, G., & Sethi, M. (2024). An assessment of local SDG monitoring: Literature review (UNU-CRIS Working Paper No. 6). United Nations University Institute on Comparative Regional Integration Studies.
Çağlar, M., & Gürler, C. (2022). Sustainable development goals: A cluster analysis of worldwide countries. Environment, Development and Sustainability, 24(6), 8593–8624. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10668-021-01801-6
Campbell, A. L., & Shore-Sheppard, L. (2020). The social, political, and economic effects of the Affordable Care Act: Introduction to the issue. RSF: The Russell Sage Foundation Journal of the Social Sciences, 6(2), 1–40. https://doi.org/10.7758/rsf.2020.6.2.01
Canamary, E. A., de Encarnação Paiva, A. C., Martins, M. A., de Moura Silva, D., Marchezini, V., & Tomasella, J. (2025). Integrating Sustainable Development Goals into the nexus approach. Journal of Water and Climate Change, 16(2), 289–306. https://doi.org/10.2166/wcc.2025.096
Ceglar, A., Parker, M., Pasqua, C., Boldrini, S., Gabet, M., & van der Zwaag, S. (2024). Economic and financial impacts of nature degradation and biodiversity loss. European Central Bank Economic Bulletin, 6. https://www.ecb.europa.eu/press/economic-bulletin/articles/2024/html/ecb.ebart202406_02~ae87ac450e.en.html
Censoro, J., Charles, A., Coy, D., Dahlmann, F., Elder, M., Fritzsche, F., Galvão, T. G., & Cerf, M. E. (2019). Sustainable Development Goal integration, interdependence, and implementation: The environment–economic–health nexus and universal health coverage. Global Challenges, 3(9), 1900021. https://doi.org/10.1002/gch2.201900021
Chan, F. F. Y., Hui, R. K. Y., & Ho, M. (2025). Promoting and implementing the Sustainable Development Goals: A scoping review and implications for future research. Journal of Global Responsibility, 17(1), 73-92. https://doi.org/10.1108/JGR-06-2024-0104
Chiu, W. K., & Fong, B. Y. F. (2023). Sustainable Development Goal 3 in healthcare. In T. C. H. Leung, W. K. Chiu, C. You, S. X. Fong, & B. Y. F. Fong (Eds.), Environmental, social and governance and sustainable development in healthcare. Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-1564-4
Ćwiek, M., Pater, B., & Ulman, P. (2024). Inequalities in the level of sustainable development in the European Union countries. Economics and Environment, 90(3), 935. https://doi.org/10.34659/eis.2024.90.3.935
D’Amato, M., & Russo, F. F. (2025). Cultural doorways in the barriers to development. Journal of Economic Growth, 31, 125-178. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10887-025-09253-7
De Neve, J.-E., & Sachs, J. D. (2020). The SDGs and human well-being: A global analysis of synergies, trade-offs, and regional differences. Scientific Reports, 10, 15113. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-020-71916-9
Díaz, S., Settele, J., Brondízio, E. S., Ngo, H. T., Guèze, M., Agard, J., Arneth, A., Balvanera, P., Brauman, K. A., Butchart, S. H. M., Chan, K. M. A., Garibaldi, L. A., Ichii, K., Liu, J., Subramanian, S. M., Midgley, G. F., Miloslavich, P., Molnár, Z., Obura, D., ... Zayas, C. N. (Eds.). (2019). Summary for policymakers of the global assessment report on biodiversity and ecosystem services of the Intergovernmental Science-Policy Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services. IPBES Secretariat.
Dogan, E., Mohammed, K. S., Khan, Z., & Binsaeed, R. H. (2024). Analyzing the nexus between environmental sustainability and clean energy for the USA. Environmental Science and Pollution Research, 31(19), 27789–27803. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-024-32765-5
Donkor, F. K., & Chitakira, M. (2021). The nexus of water, sanitation, and hygiene (WASH) and Sustainable Development Goals. In W. Leal Filho, A. M. Azul, L. Brandli, A. Lange Salvia, & T. Wall (Eds.), Clean water and sanitation. Encyclopedia of the UN Sustainable Development Goals. Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-70061-8_175-1
Ehrlich, P. R. (1989). The limits to substitution: Meta-resource depletion and a new economic–ecological paradigm. Ecological Economics, 1(1), 9–16. https://doi.org/10.1016/0921-8009(89)90021-9
Eisenmenger, N., Pichler, M., Krenmayr, N., Noll, D., Plank, B., Schalmann, E., Wandl, M.-T., & Gingrich, S. (2020). The Sustainable Development Goals prioritize economic growth over sustainable resource use: A critical reflection on the SDGs from a socio-ecological perspective. Sustainability Science, 15(4), 1101–1110. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11625-020-00813-x
Ezako, J. T. (2024). The nexus between human development, official development assistance, carbon emissions, and governance in developing countries for the realization of sustainable development goals. Cogent Economics & Finance, 12(1), 2330452. https://doi.org/10.1080/23322039.2024.2330452
Ferraz, D., & Pyka, A. (2023). Circular economy, bioeconomy, and sustainable development goals: A systematic literature review. Environmental Science and Pollution Research. Advance online publication. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-023-29632-0
Ferreira, I. A., Salvucci, V., & Tarp, F. (2023). Poverty, inequality, and growth: Trends, policies, and controversies. In K. F. Zimmermann (Ed.), Handbook of labor, human resources and population economics. Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-57365-6_343-1
Figueiredo, F., & Rotaru, C. (2022). From green growth to the blue growth in the 2030 Agenda goals. Bulletin of the Transilvania University of Braşov, 14(63), 23–30. https://doi.org/10.31926/but.ssl.2021.14.63.3.3
Genders, S. E. (2023). Sustainable Development Goals (UN Global Goals). In Encyclopedia of sustainable management. Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-25984-5_282
Gharesifard, M., Ceccaroni, L., Gold, M., Suman, A. B., & Das, K. (2025). Citizen science and the nexus approach: Unlocking synergies for sustainable development. Sustainability Nexus Forum, 33, 4. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00550-025-00562-4
Glass, L.-M., & Newig, J. (2019). Governance for achieving the Sustainable Development Goals: How important are participation, policy coherence, reflexivity, adaptation and democratic institutions? Earth System Governance, 2, 100031. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.esg.2019.100031
Govindaswamy, B. K., & Rangappa, K. B. (2023). Sanitation, water and Sustainable Development Goals. IOSR Journal of Humanities and Social Science, 28(11), 45–51. https://www.iosrjournals.org/iosr-jhss/pages/28(11)Series-10.html
Gratzer, G., & Winiwarter, V. (2018). Chancen und Herausforderungen bei der Umsetzung der UN-Nachhaltigkeitsziele aus österreichischer Sicht. KIOES Opinions, 8, 13–26.
Griggs, D., Smith, M. S., Rockström, J., Öhman, M. C., Gaffney, O., Glaser, G., Kanie, N., Noble, I., Steffen, W., & Shyamsundar, P. (2014). An integrated framework for sustainable development goals. Ecology and Society, 19(4), 49. https://www.jstor.org/stable/26269703
Gunawan, J., Permatasari, P., & Tilt, C. (2020). Sustainable development goal disclosures: Do they support responsible consumption and production? Journal of Cleaner Production, 246, 118989. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2019.118989
Haas, B. (2023). Achieving SDG 14 in an equitable and just way. International Environmental Agreements: Politics, Law and Economics, 23(2), 199–205. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10784-023-09603-z
Haas, P. M., & Ivanovskis, N. (2022). Prospects for implementing the SDGs. Current Opinion in Environmental Sustainability, 56, 101176. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cosust.2022.101176
Han, S., Li, C., Li, M., Lenzen, M., Chen, X., Zhang, Y., Li, M., Yin, T., Li, Y., Li, J., Liu, J., & Li, Y. (2024). Prospects for global sustainable development through integrating the environmental impacts of economic activities. Nature Communications, 15, 8423. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-024-52854-w
Hao, L., Xu, X., Dupre, M. E., Guo, A., Zhang, X., Qiu, L., Zhao, Y., & Gu, D. (2020). Adequate access to healthcare and added life expectancy among older adults in China. BMC Geriatrics, 20, 129. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12877-020-01524-9
Hickmann, T., Biermann, F., Sénit, C.-A., Sun, Y., Bexell, M., Bolton, M., Bornemann, B., Grainger-Brown, J., Inoue, C., Jönsson, K., Rosas, M. K., Krellenberg, K., Moallemi, E., Alva, I. L., Malekpour, S., Ningrum, D., Paneva, A., Partzsch, L., Ramiro, R., ... Weiland, S. (2024). Scoping article: Research frontiers on the governance of the Sustainable Development Goals. Global Sustainability, 7, e7. https://doi.org/10.1017/sus.2024.4
Hwang, C.-L., & Yoon, K. (1981). Multiple attribute decision making: Methods and applications. Springer-Verlag.
Institute for Economics & Peace. (2024). Global Peace Index 2024: Measuring peace in a complex world. https://www.visionofhumanity.org/resources
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. (2018). Summary for policymakers. In V. Masson-Delmotte, P. Zhai, H.-O. Pörtner, D. Roberts, J. Skea, P. R. Shukla, A. Pirani, W. Moufouma-Okia, C. Péan, R. Pidcock, S. Connors, J. B. R. Matthews, Y. Chen, X. Zhou, M. I. Gomis, E. Lonnoy, T. Maycock, M. Tignor & T. Waterfield (Eds.), Global warming of 1.5°C. An IPCC special report (pp. 3–24). Cambridge University Press. https://doi.org/10.1017/9781009157940.001
Işık, C., & Shahbaz, M. (2015). Energy consumption and economic growth: A panel data approach to OECD countries. International Journal of Energy Science, 5(1), 1–5. https://doi.org/10.12783/ijes.2015.0501.01
Islam, H. (2025). Nexus of economic, social, and environmental factors on sustainable development goals: The moderating role of technological advancement and green innovation. Innovation and Green Development, 4(1), 100183. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.igd.2024.100183
Kaushik, A. (2023). The role of good governance in achieving sustainable development: A study of India. International Journal of Political Science and Governance, 5(1), 101–106. https://doi.org/10.33545/26646021.2023.v5.i1b.209
Krauss, J. E. (2022). Unpacking SDG 15, its targets and indicators: Tracing ideas of conservation. Globalizations, 19(8), 1179–1194. https://doi.org/10.1080/14747731.2022.2035480
Kyei, S. K., Boateng, H. K., & Frimpong, A. J. (2025). Renewable energy innovations: Fulfilling SDG targets. Clean Energy, 9(2), 190–203. https://doi.org/10.1093/ce/zkae109
Lakner, C., Mahler, D. G., Negre, M., & Prydz, E. B. (2022). How much does reducing inequality matter for global poverty? The Journal of Economic Inequality, 20(3), 559–585. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10888-021-09510-w
Lami, I. M., & Mecca, B. (2021). Assessing social sustainability for achieving sustainable architecture. Sustainability, 13(1), 142. https://doi.org/10.3390/su13010142
Lampert, A. (2019). Over-exploitation of natural resources is followed by inevitable declines in economic growth and discount rate. Nature Communications, 10, 1419. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-019-09246-2
Li, L., Xia, X., Chen, B., & Sun, L. (2018). Public participation in achieving sustainable development goals in China: Evidence from air pollution control practice. Journal of Cleaner Production, 201, 499–506. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2018.08.046
Li, S., Wang, W., Diao, H., & Wang, L. (2022). Measuring the efficiency of energy and carbon emissions: A review of definitions, models, and input-output variables. Energies, 15(3), 962. https://doi.org/10.3390/en15030962
Massey, A. (2022). Sustainable Development Goals and their fit with good governance. Global Policy, 13(S1), 79–85. https://doi.org/10.1111/1758-5899.13037
Meschede, C. (2020). The Sustainable Development Goals in scientific literature: A bibliometric overview at the meta-level. Sustainability, 12(11), 4461. https://doi.org/10.3390/su12114461
Mu, H. (2024). Green investment, energy efficiency, and economic growth: Does economic freedom matter? Evidence from BRICS countries. Technological and Economic Development of Economy, 30(1), 218–237. https://doi.org/10.3846/tede.2024.19442
Ocampo Cantillo, J. J., & Benites Lazaro, L. L. (2024). Transforming education or transforming the fourth Sustainable Development Goal (SDG 4)? International Review of Education, 70(4), 575–601. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11159-024-10088-4
Ochi, A., Labidi, M. A., & Saidi, Y. (2024). The nexus between pro-poor growth, inequality, institutions and poverty: Evidence from low and middle income developing countries. Social Indicators Research, 172(2), 703–739. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11205-024-03326-7
Paul, S. O., & Adoji, V. A. (2022). GDP as development indicator and the challenges of actualising SDG 8: Inclusive and sustainable economic growth. Journal of International Cooperation and Development, 5(3), 62–78. https://doi.org/10.36941/jicd-2022-0013
Ponce, P., & Khan, S. A. R. (2021). A causal link between renewable energy, energy efficiency, property rights, and CO₂ emissions in developed countries: A road map for environmental sustainability. Environmental Science and Pollution Research, 28(28), 37804–37817. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-021-12465-0
Puma, G. C. C., Salles, A., & Bragança, L. (2024). Nexus between urban circular economies and Sustainable Development Goals: A systematic literature review. Sustainability, 16(6), 2500. https://doi.org/10.3390/su16062500
Quintana, D. S. Z., Platje, J., Bernaciak, A., Czekała, M., Will, M., & van Dam, Y. K. (2024). The new ecological paradigm and attitudes towards sustainable business practices – A Mexican case study. Economics and Environment, 87(4), 649. https://doi.org/10.34659/eis.2023.87.4.649
Raghu, R., Suparna, R., Dayana, D., & Prema, N. (2025). Innovations and barriers in sustainable and green finance for advancing sustainable development goals. Frontiers in Environmental Science, 12, 1513204. https://doi.org/10.3389/fenvs.2024.1513204
Ramzy, O., Bedawy, R., Anwar, M., & Eldahan, O. H. (2019). Sustainable development & good governance. European Journal of Sustainable Development, 8(2), 125–138. https://doi.org/10.14207/ejsd.2019.v8n2p125
Razavi, N. S. (2020). Women in cities: The nexus between SDG 5 and SDG 11. In W. Leal Filho, A. Azul, L. Brandli, A. Lange Salvia, & T. Wall (Eds.), Gender equality. Encyclopedia of the UN Sustainable Development Goals. Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-70060-1_153-1
Ricciolini, E., Rocchi, L., Cardinali, M., Paolotti, L., Ruiz, F., Cabello, J. M., & Boggia, A. (2022). Assessing progress towards SDGs implementation using multiple reference point based multicriteria methods: The case study of the European countries. Social Indicators Research, 162(3), 1233–1260. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11205-022-02886-w
Rijpma, A., Philips, R. C. M., & van Bavel, B. (2024). Multidimensional composite indicators of well-being: Applications in economic history. Journal of Economic Surveys, 39(2), 672–705. https://doi.org/10.1111/joes.12622
Roszkowska, E. (2024). A comprehensive exploration of Hellwig’s taxonomic measure of development and its modifications—A systematic review of algorithms and applications. Applied Sciences, 14(21), 10029. https://doi.org/10.3390/app142110029
Roszkowska, E., & Karwowska, R. (2014). Wielowymiarowa analiza poziomu zrównoważonego rozwoju województw Polski w 2010 roku. Economics and Management, 1, 9–39. https://yadda.icm.edu.pl/baztech/element/bwmeta1.element.baztech-ba508f22-fb59-4c0f-9635-8eb80cc52f8c (in Polish).
Roszkowska, E., Filipowicz-Chomko, M., & Wachowicz, T. (2017). Wykorzystanie metody TOPSIS do oceny zrównoważenia rozwoju województw Polski w latach 2010–2014 w kontekście kształtowania się ładu instytucjonalnego. Prace Naukowe Uniwersytetu Ekonomicznego we Wrocławiu, 469, 149–158. https://doi.org/10.15611/pn.2017.469.15 (in Polsih).
Sachs, J. D., Lafortune, G., Fuller, G., & Iablonovski, G. (2025). Financing sustainable development to 2030 and mid-century. Sustainable Development Report 2025. SDSN / Dublin University Press. https://doi.org/10.25546/111909
Sachs, J. D., Schmidt-Traub, G., Mazzucato, M., Messner, D., Nakicenovic, N., & Rockström, J. (2019). Six transformations to achieve the Sustainable Development Goals. Nature Sustainability, 2(9), 805–814. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41893-019-0352-9
Sass, K. S., & Ponce Dentinho, T. L. C. (2023). Relating Sustainable Development Goals in a conceptual integrated model of growth and welfare. REGION, 10(3), 45–57. https://doi.org/10.18335/region.v10i3.477
Scharlemann, J. P. W., Brock, R. C., Balfour, N., Brown, C., Burgess, N. D., Guth, M. K., Ingram, D. J., Lane, R., Martin, J. G. C., Wicander, S., & Kapos, V. (2020). Towards understanding interactions between Sustainable Development Goals: The role of environment–human linkages. Sustainability Science, 15(6), 1573–1584. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11625-020-00799-6
Sharma, I., & Birman, S. (2024). Biodiversity loss, ecosystem services, and their role in promoting sustainable health. In P. Singh & N. Yadav (Eds.), The climate-health-sustainability nexus (pp. 163–188). Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-56564-9_7
Subramaniam, N., Akbar, S., Situ, H., Ji, S., & Parikh, N. (2023). Sustainable development goal reporting: Contrasting effects of institutional and organisational factors. Journal of Cleaner Production, 411, 137339. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2023.137339
Sungkawaningrum, F. (2024). The tutorial environmental integration in development strategy and economic growth: A macroeconomic perspective. Teumulong: Journal of Community Service, 2(3), 130–139. https://doi.org/10.62568/jocs.v2i3.33
Syuhada, L., Said, A., Kadri, S., & Sari, Y. (2023). Genuine progress indicators sebagai pendekatan alternatif menuju ekonomi berkelanjutan. Journal Publicuho, 6(4), 1362–1374. https://doi.org/10.35817/publicuho.v6i4.283
Toukabri, M., & Youssef, M. A. M. (2023). Climate change disclosure and sustainable development goals (SDGs) of the 2030 Agenda: The moderating role of corporate governance. Journal of Information, Communication and Ethics in Society, 21(1), 30–62. https://doi.org/10.1108/JICES-02-2022-0016
United Nations Global Compact Office. (2004). The Global Compact Leaders Summit: United Nations Headquarters, 24 June 2004: Final report (ST(063)/G541). https://digitallibrary.un.org/record/692386
United Nations. (2019). The Sustainable Development Goals report 2019. https://doi.org/10.18356/55eb9109-en
United Nations. (n.d.). SDG Indicators Database. https://unstats.un.org/sdgs/dataportal
Usubiaga-Liaño, A., Fairbrass, A., & Ekins, P. (2024). Strong sustainability and the environmental dimension of the Sustainable Development Goals. Global Sustainability, 7, e52. https://doi.org/10.1017/sus.2024.47
Valverde, J. M., & Avilés-Palacios, C. (2021). Circular economy as a catalyst for progress towards the Sustainable Development Goals: A positive relationship between two self-sufficient variables. Sustainability, 13(22), 12652. https://doi.org/10.3390/su132212652
van Zanten, J. A., & van Tulder, R. (2021). Towards nexus-based governance: Defining interactions between economic activities and Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). International Journal of Sustainable Development & World Ecology, 28(3), 210–226. https://doi.org/10.1080/13504509.2020.1768452
Vanham, D., Hoekstra, A. Y., Wada, Y., Bouraoui, F., de Roo, A., Mekonnen, M. M., van de Bund, W. J., Batelaan, O., Pavelic, P., Bastiaanssen, W. G. M., Kummu, M., Rockström, J., Liu, J., Bisselink, B., Ronco, P., Pistocchi, A., & Bidoglio, G. (2018). Physical water scarcity metrics for monitoring progress towards SDG target 6.4: An evaluation of indicator 6.4.2 “Level of water stress”. Science of the Total Environment, 613–614, 218–232. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2017.09.056
Weick, V. (2016). Green economy and sustainable development. In Research papers in economics (pp. 121–150). Edward Elgar.
World Bank. (n.d.). Worldwide Governance Indicators. https://www.worldbank.org/en/publication/worldwide-governance-indicators
Wyszkowska, D., Godlewska, A., Łapińska, R., Rogalewska, A., Słucka, U., Szklarzewska, A., & Szpaczko, I. (2020). Wskaźniki zielonej gospodarki w Polsce 2020. Główny Urząd Statystyczny / Urząd Statystyczny w Białymstoku. https://stat.gov.pl/files/gfx/portalinformacyjny/pl/defaultaktualnosci/5484/5/4/1/wskazniki_zielonej_gospodarki_w_polsce_2020.pdf
Yoon, K. (1980). Systems Selection by Multiple Attribute Decision Making. PhD Dissertation, Kansas State University, Manhattan, Kansas.
Hwang, C. L., & Yoon, K. (1981). Multiple Attribute Decision Making: Methods and Applications. A State-of-the-Art Survey. Lecture Notes in Economics and Mathematical Systems, Vol. 186. Berlin–Heidelberg: Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-48318-9
Yoon, K. P., & Hwang, C.-L. (1995). Multiple attribute decision making: An introduction. SAGE.
Zhu, Y., Bashir, S., & Marie, M. (2022). Assessing the relationship between poverty and economic growth: Does Sustainable Development Goal can be achieved? Environmental Science and Pollution Research, 29(19), 27613–27623. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-021-18240-5
Zidan, E. S. M., & Seleem, E. A. (2024). Sustainable Development Goals and future research areas: A literature review. In A. I. Hunjra & J. W. Goodell (Eds.), The Palgrave handbook of green finance for sustainable development. Palgrave Macmillan. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-65756-6_31
Zielak, K., & Gaspars-Wieloch, H. (2024). Sustainable development in Poland in quantitative terms – state as of 2022. Statistical Review, 71(3), 19–40. https://doi.org/10.59139/ps.2024.03.2
Zioło, M., Bak, I., & Cheba, K. (2021). The role of sustainable finance in achieving Sustainable Development Goals: Does it work? Technological and Economic Development of Economy, 27(1), 45–70. https://doi.org/10.3846/tede.2020.13863
Zioło, M., Spoz, A., & Szaruga, E. (2025). Nexus between financial development and Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). European Union perspective. Technological and Economic Development of Economy, 31(5), 1401-1432 https://doi.org/10.3846/tede.2025.22864
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License.
Copyright (c) 2026 Economics and Environment