Keywords
international students
higher education
spatial inequalities
metro and non-metropolitan cities
How to Cite
Abstract
Using data between 2019 and 2023 from 16 major academic centres in Poland and employing Welch's t-test for independent samples with unequal variances, between-group effect size measures (Hedges' g, Cliff's δ), the Lorenz curve and Gini coefficient, as well as temporal dynamics analysis, this article presents the spatial distribution patterns of international students across Polish metropolitan and non-metropolitan centres. The study demonstrates more than fourfold concentration of international students in metropolitan centres (mean: 9,213 vs 2,285 in non-metropolitan centres, p<0.05), yet with differentiated growth dynamics. In fact, while metropolitan areas dominate in absolute numbers, non-metropolitan centres exhibit higher relative growth rates. The comparative analysis of spatial polarisation of international students in Poland presented in this article may indicate the onset of a deconcentration process as a potential mechanism for balancing territorial disparities. It provides a starting point for further research on the determinants and mechanisms of uneven distribution of international students and highlights the urgent need for an internationalisation policy that supports non-metropolitan centres.
References
Aguiar, J., Tavares, O., & Sin, C. (2024). Impact of international student mobility in rural Portuguese regions. International Journal of Educational Research, 124, 102439. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijer.2024.102439
Baskin, C. W. (1966). Central places in southern Germany. Prentice Hall.
Białecki, I. (2016). Wiedza o nauce w Polsce i krajach Unii Europejskiej. Nauka i Szkolnictwo Wyższe, 1(19), 7–25. https://bibliotekanauki.pl/articles/1367334 (in Polish).
Blockeel, C., Campbell, A., Coticchio, G., Garcia-Velasco, J. A., Pinborg, A., & Santulli, P. (2025). Educate. Empower. Reproduce. A call for action against the demographic winter. Reproductive BioMedicine Online, 51(4), 105047. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rbmo.2025.105047
Capdevila, P., Stott, I., Beger, M., & Salguero-Gómez, R. (2020). Towards a comparative framework of demographic resilience. Trends in Ecology & Evolution, 35(9), 776–786. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tree.2020.05.001
Chen, T.-M., & Barnett, G. A. (2000). Research on international student flows from a macro perspective: A network analysis of 1985, 1989 and 1995. Higher Education, 39(4), 435–453. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1003961327009
Christaller, W. (1933). Die zentralen Orte in Süddeutschland. Eine ökonomisch-geographische Untersuchung über die Gesetzmässigkeit der Verbreitung und Entwicklung der Siedlungen mit städtischen Funktionen. Gustav Fischer.
D’Adamo, I. (2025). Impact of regional investment on the sustainable development goals: A group analysis of economic and territorial development. Sustainable Development, 33(2), 1816–1834. https://doi.org/10.1002/sd.3215
Deehan, J., Redshaw, S., Danaia, L., Postlethwaite, F., Donnelly, A., & Morris, C. (2025). Understanding STEM beyond the cities: A comprehensive review of non-metropolitan STEM education research. International Journal of Educational Research Open, 9, 100496. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijedro.2025.100496
Dybaś, M., Dziemianowicz-Bąk, A., Krawczyk-Radwan, M., & Walczak, D. (2012). Szkolnictwo wyższe. In M. Federowicz & A. Wojciuk (Eds.), Kontynuacja przemian. Raport o stanie edukacji 2011. Instytut Badań Edukacyjnych. (in Polish).
Eusafzai, H. A. K. (2024). Educational capital and international mobility: A Bourdieusian inquiry into choosing peripheral higher education destination. Social Sciences & Humanities Open, 10, 100916. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ssaho.2024.100916
Fricke, C., & Giuliani, E. (2017). Metropolitan regions as contested spaces: The discursive construction of metropolitan space in comparative perspective. Territory, Politics, Governance, 6(2), 199–221. https://doi.org/10.1080/21622671.2017.1351888
Gérard, E., & Lebeau, Y. (2023). Trajectories within international academic mobility: A renewed perspective on the dynamics and hierarchies of the global higher education field. International Journal of Educational Development, 100, 102780. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijedudev.2023.102780
Hägerstrand, T. (1967). Innovation diffusion as a spatial process. University of Chicago Press.
Highman, L. (2019). The distribution of EU students and staff at UK universities: Patterns and trends. Tertiary Education and Management, 25(4), 311–326. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11233-019-09037-w
Huff, J. O. (1976). A hierarchical migration model of population redistribution within a central place hierarchy. Geographical Analysis, 8(3), 231–253. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1538-4632.1976.tb00533.x
ICEF Monitor. (2024). Global survey says graduate outcomes the most important factor in students’ choice of institution abroad. https://monitor.icef.com/2025/04/global-survey-says-graduate-outcomes-the-most-important-factor-in-students-choice-of-institution-abroad/
Jończy, R. (2024). Czy koniec wielkiej ucieczki z peryferii? O/polska młodzież wobec migracji i rynku pracy w przeszłości i obecnie. Studia Migracyjne – Przegląd Polonijny, 193, 105–127. https://doi.org/10.4467/25444972SMPP.24.018.20576 (in Polish).
Jöns, H. (2015). Talent mobility and the shifting geographies of Latourian knowledge hubs. Population, Space and Place, 21(4), 372–389. https://doi.org/10.1002/psp.1878
Bourdieu, P., & Wacquant, L. (1999). On the cunning of imperialist reason. Theory, Culture & Society, 16(1), 41–58. https://doi.org/10.1177/026327699016001003
Kaczmarczuk, K. (2009). Modernizacja szkolnictwa wyższego w Polsce. Perspektywa teorii refleksywnej modernizacji. Przegląd Socjologiczny, 58(3), 77–92. https://cejsh.icm.edu.pl/cejsh/element/bwmeta1.element.desklight-49f60a16-93d5-4033-8750-62d366b9413e (in Polish).
Katz, E., Levin, M. L., & Hamilton, H. (1963). Traditions of research on the diffusion of innovation. American Sociological Review, 28(2), 237–252. https://doi.org/10.2307/2090611
Klemens, B., & Adamska, M. (2021). Educational challenges for universities during the COVID-19 pandemic. In NORDSCI Conference Proceedings 2021 Book 1 (Vol. 4, pp. 45–54). https://eric.ed.gov/?id=ED625519
Kondakci, Y., Bedenlier, S., & Zawacki-Richter, O. (2018). Social network analysis of international student mobility: Uncovering the rise of regional hubs. Higher Education, 75(3), 517–535. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10734-017-0154-9
Kondakci, Y., Caliskan, O., Sahin, B. B., Yilik, M. A., & Demir, C. E. (2016). Regional internationalization in higher education between Turkey and the Balkans. bilig – Journal of Social Sciences of the Turkic World, 78, 287–308. https://dergipark.org.tr/tr/download/article-file/807193
Kotowska, I. E. (2024). Przedmowa do wydania polskiego. In C. Goodhart & M. Pradhan, Wielki zwrot demograficzny. Starzejące się społeczeństwa, zanikanie nierówności i powrót inflacji. Warsaw Enterprise Institute. (in Polish).
Koyama, Y. (2024). Massive outflow of population from peripheral countries of the European Union and their depopulation: Its implications for the European integration. Journal of Identity and Migration Studies, 18(1), 124–133. https://jims.uoradea.ro/images/Previous%20issues/2024/Number%201/JIMS_Vol18_No1_2024_pp_124_133_GOUDENHOOFT.pdf
Kulczyk-Dynowska, A., & Kubicz, M. (2024). Accommodation costs in state university dormitories illustrated by selected examples. Research Papers of Wrocław University of Economics, 68(2), 95–105. https://doi.org/10.15611/pn.2024.2.08
Kwiek, M. (2010). Zarządzanie polskim szkolnictwem wyższym w kontekście transformacji zarządzania w szkolnictwie wyższym w Europie. Centrum Badań Polityki Naukowej i Szkolnictwa Wyższego. (in Polish).
Lomer, S., Budginaitė-Mačkinė, I., Carlson, S., Klasik, D., Bamberger, A., Nada, C., & Courtois, A. (2024). Social inequalities in international student mobility: A systematic literature review (Working Paper No. 117). Centre for Global Higher Education, Economic and Social Research Council.
Lu, Z., Lu, Y., Lo, L., Zhu, H., & Jean, J. (2023). International students in China: Regional distribution and macro-influencing factors. Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies, 49(18), 4722–4746. https://doi.org/10.1080/1369183X.2023.2270340
Marginson, S. (2008). Global field and global imagining: Bourdieu and worldwide higher education. British Journal of Sociology of Education, 29(3), 303–315. https://doi.org/10.1080/01425690801966386
McMahon, M. E. (1992). Higher education in a world market: An historical look at the global context of international study. Higher Education, 24(4), 465–482. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00137243
Misra, D., & Pugh, R. (2023). Developing non-core regions by establishing new universities. Regional Studies, 57(12), 2563–2577. https://doi.org/10.1080/00343404.2023.2180497
Moisio, S., & Kangas, A. (2016). Reterritorializing the global knowledge economy: An analysis of geopolitical assemblages of higher education. Global Networks, 16(3), 268-287. https://doi.org/10.1111/glob.12103
Office for Students. (2021). Place matters: Inequality, employment and the role of higher education. https://www.officeforstudents.org.uk/publications/place-matters-inequality-employment-and-the-role-of-higher-education/
Poland’s Migration Strategy. (2024). Odzyskać kontrolę. Zapewnić bezpieczeństwo. Kompleksowa i odpowiedzialna strategia migracyjna Polski na lata 2025–2030 [Regain control. Ensure security. A comprehensive and responsible migration strategy of Poland for 2025–2030]. Ministry of the Interior and Administration. https://www.gov.pl/web/premier/odzyskac-kontrole-zapewnic-bezpieczenstwo---strategia-migracyjna-na-lata-2025---2030 (in Polish).
Poole, A., Liujinya, Y., & Yue, S. (2022). “We’re away from everything”: Understanding the struggles faced by internationalized schools in non-urban contexts in China. SAGE Open, 12(1). https://doi.org/10.1177/21582440221081026
Rogers, E. M. (1962). Diffusion of innovations. Free Press of Glencoe.
Rokita-Poskart, D., & Adamska, M. (2023). Local labour market outcomes of educational migration. Management, 26(2), 63–85. https://doi.org/10.58691/manment-2023-000A
Rokita-Poskart, D., Adamska, M., Platje, J., Mąkolska-Frankowska, I., & Poskart, R. (2024). Educational migration and demographic resilience: The role of student mobility in local development. Economics and Environment, 91(4), 1016. https://doi.org/10.34659/eis.2024.91.4.1016
Rottleb, T. (2022). Gateway cities for transnational higher education? Doha, Dubai and Ras al-Khaimah as regional amplifiers in networks of the ‘global knowledge-based economy’. Global Networks, 23(4), 901-917. https://doi.org/10.1111/glob.12429
Schulze, M. P., & Kleibert, J. M. (2021). Transnational education for regional economic development? Understanding Malaysia’s and Singapore’s strategic coupling in global higher education. International Journal of Training and Development, 25(4), 363-382. https://doi.org/10.1111/ijtd.12242
Shi, W., Yang, W., Mu, X., & Yang, F. (2024). Analysis of spatial characteristics and influencing factors of the flow network of highly educated talents from national and local perspective. Scientific Reports, 14, 9657. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-024-60436-5
Shields, R. (2013). Globalization and international student mobility: A network analysis. Comparative Education Review, 57(4), 609–636. https://doi.org/10.1086/671752
Śleszyński, P. (2016). Współczesne i prognozowane uwarunkowania demograficzno-migracyjne w rozwoju miejskiego systemu osadniczego Polski. Konwersatorium Wiedzy o Mieście, 1(29), 97–106. https://doi.org/10.18778/2543-9421.01.11 (in Polish).
Śleszyński, Z. (2020). The basics of determining the coefficients of a linear correlation. Wiadomości Statystyczne. The Polish Statistician, 65(6), 69–87. https://doi.org/10.5604/01.3001.0014.2347 (in Polish).
Smętkowski, M., Jałowiecki, B., & Gorzelak, G. (2009). Obszary metropolitalne w Polsce – diagnoza i rekomendacje. Studia Regionalne i Lokalne, 35(1), 52–73. https://www.euroreg.uw.edu.pl/pl/publikacje,obszary-metropolitalne-w-polsce-diagnoza-i-rekomendacje (in Polish).
Smętkowski, M., Jałowiecki, B., & Gorzelak, G. (2009). Obszary metropolitalne w Polsce: problemy rozwojowe i delimitacja. EUROREG. (in Polish).
Soloviev, I. A., Fryer, P. J., Shchitova, N. A., & Belozerov, V. S. (2021). Spatial analysis of international student immigration in Russia. Maps and GIS in Population and Public Health Research, 4(27), 402–414. https://doi.org/10.35595/2414-9179-2021-4-27-402-414
Stankiewicz, Ł. (2015). Pułapka umasowienia – o sprawczości jednostek w umasowionym systemie szkolnictwa wyższego. Nauka i Szkolnictwo Wyższe, 1(45), 191–213. https://doi.org/10.14746/nsw.2015.1.8 (in Polish).
Study in Poland. (2020). Studenci zagraniczni w Polsce 2020. Fundacja Edukacyjna „Perspektywy”. (in Polish).
Study in Poland. (2021). Studenci zagraniczni w Polsce 2021. Fundacja Edukacyjna „Perspektywy”. (in Polish).
Study in Poland. (2022). Studenci zagraniczni w Polsce 2022. Fundacja Edukacyjna „Perspektywy”. (in Polish).
Study in Poland. (2023). Studenci zagraniczni w Polsce 2023. Fundacja Edukacyjna „Perspektywy”. (in Polish).
Study in Poland. (2024). Studenci zagraniczni w Polsce 2024. Fundacja Edukacyjna „Perspektywy”. (in Polish).
Tarde, G. (1895). Les lois de l’imitation. Félix Alcan.
Truskolaski, T., & Bugowski, Ł. (2024). Socio-economic determinants of development in reference to the change in population size in Central and Eastern Europe between 2008 and 2019. Economics and Environment, 89(2), 664. https://doi.org/10.34659/eis.2024.89.2.664
Verginer, L., & Riccaboni, M. (2021). Talent goes to global cities: The world network of scientists’ mobility. Research Policy, 50(1), 104127. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.respol.2020.104127
Wallerstein, I. (2011). The modern world-system I: Capitalist agriculture and the origins of the European world-economy in the sixteenth century. University of California Press.
Wasielewski, K. (2017). Ewolucja systemów oświatowych i postaw młodzieży wobec edukacji w krajach Europy Środkowo-Wschodniej. Kultura i Edukacja, 3(117). (in Polish).
Weber, T., & Van Mol, C. (2023). The other European migration crisis: Recognising the importance of intra-European movement for European integration. Comparative Migration Studies, 11, 5. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40878-023-00329-0
Winters, J. V. (2010). Human capital and population growth in non-metropolitan U.S. counties: The importance of college student migration (MPRA Paper No. 25592). University Library of Munich. https://mpra.ub.uni-muenchen.de/25592/
Zahl-Thanem, A., & Rye, J. F. (2024). Spatial inequality in higher education: A growing urban–rural educational gap? European Sociological Review, 40(6), 1067–1081. https://doi.org/10.1093/esr/jcae015
Zarycki, T. (2009). Peryferie: Nowe ujęcia symbolicznych zależności centro-peryferyjnych. Scholar. (in Polish).
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License.
Copyright (c) 2026 Economics and Environment