Credit - inequality nexus: the role of natural resources
PDF

Keywords

credit
inequality
natural resources
mobility
panel data

How to Cite

Magwedere, M. R. (2023). Credit - inequality nexus: the role of natural resources. Economics and Environment, 86(3), 508-526. https://doi.org/10.34659/eis.2023.86.3.646

Abstract

This article offers a contribution to the understanding of the links between credit, inequality and natural resources, using panel data from 2002 to 2021 for 31 countries. A system-generalised method of moments was employed to determine the dynamic relationship between the variables of the study. The findings of the study suggest inequality and natural resources have a negative and significant relationship with credit. Higher inequality levels and natural resources rents are associated with a lower ratio of private credit to gross domestic product. The study offers an insight into the three pillars of sustainability, namely economic, social and environmental. It is essential for policymakers to integrate environmental factors such as natural resources in the relationships between inequality and the financial sector.

PDF

References

Altunbaş, Y., & Thornton, J. (2020). Finance and income inequality revisited. Finance Research Letters, 37, 101355. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.frl.2019.101355

Andersen, J. J., Johannesen, N., Lassen, D. D., & Paltseva, E. (2017). Petro rents, political institutions, and hidden wealth: Evidence from offshore bank accounts. Journal of the European Economic Association, 15(4), 818-860.

Arellano, M. (2003). Panel Data Econometrics. New York: Oxford University Press.

Arellano, M., & Bond, S. (1991). Some tests of specification for panel data: Monte Carlo evidence and an application to employment equations. The Review of Economic Studies, 58(2), 277-297.

Arellano, M., & Bover, O. (1995). Another look at the instrumental variable estimation of error-components models. Journal of Econometrics, 68(1), 29-51. https://doi.org/10.1016/0304-4076(94)01642-D

Asongu, S. A., & De Moor, L. (2017). Financial globalisation dynamic thresholds for financial development: evidence from Africa. The European Journal of Development Research, 29(1), 192-212. https://doi.org/10.1057/ejdr.2016.10

Asongu, S. A., & Odhiambo, N. M. (2020). Insurance policy thresholds for economic growth in Africa. The European Journal of Development Research, 32(3), 672-689. https://doi.org/10.1057/s41287-019-00234-2

Banerjee, A. V., & Newman, A. F. (1993). Occupational choice and the process of development. Journal of Political Economy, 101(2), 274-298. http://www.jstor.org/stable/2138820

Bazillier, R., & Hericourt, J. (2017). The Circular Relationship between inequality, Leverage and Financial Crisis. Journal of Economic Surveys, 31(2), 463-496. https://doi.org/10.1111/joes.12150

Beck, T. (2012). Finance and oil: is there a resource curse? In N.Sy. Amadou, R. Arezki & T. Gylfason (Eds.), Beyond the curse: Policies to harness the power of natural resources (pp. 81-106). Washington, DC: International Monetary Fund. https://doi.org/10.5089/9781616351458.071

Beck, T., & Poelhekke, S. (2022). Follow the money: Does the financial sector intermediate natural resource windfalls? Journal of International Money and Finance, 130, 102769. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jimonfin.2022.102769

Bhattacharyya, S., & Hodler, R. (2014). Do natural resource revenues hinder financial development? The role of political institutions. World Development, 57, 101-113. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.worlddev.2013.12.003

Blundell, R., & Bond, S. (1998). Initial conditions and moment restrictions in dynamic panel data models. Journal of Econometrics, 87(1), 115-143. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0304-4076(98)00009-8

Boateng, G. O., Neilands, T. B., Frongillo, E. A., Melgar-Quiñonez, H. R., & Young, S. L. (2018). Best practices for developing and validating scales for health, social, and behavioral research: a primer. Frontiers in Public Health, 6, 149. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpubh.2018.00149

Bond, G., Kromer, B., Beer, J., Muscheler, R., Evans, M. N., Showers, W., Hoffmann, S., Lotti-Bond, R., Hajdas, I., & Bonani, G. (2001). Persistent solar influence on North Atlantic climate during the Holocene. Science, 294(5549), 2130-2136. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1065680

Bordo, M. D., & Meissner, C. M. (2012). Does inequality lead to a financial crisis? Journal of International Money and Finance, 31(8), 2147-2161. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jimonfin.2012.05.006

Botta, A., Caverzasi, E., Russo, A., Gallegati, M., & Stiglitz, J. E. (2021). Inequality and finance in a rent economy. Journal of Economic Behavior & Organization, 183, 998-1029. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jebo.2019.02.013

Bruno, G., De Bonis, R., & Silvestrini, A. (2012). Do financial systems converge? New evidence from financial assets in OECD countries. Journal of Comparative Economics, 40(1), 141-155. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jce.2011.09.003

Cardaci, A. (2018). Inequality, household debt and financial instability: An agent-based perspective. Journal of Economic Behaviour & Organization, 149, 434-458. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jebo.2018.01.010

Cardaci, A., & Saraceno, F. (2019). Between scylla and charybdis: income distribution, consumer credit, and business cycles. Economic Inquiry, 57(2), 953-971. https://doi.org/10.1111/ecin.12749

Carmignani, F. (2013). Development outcomes, resource abundance, and the transmission through inequality. Resource and Energy Economics, 35(3), 412-428. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.reseneeco.2013.04.007

Carroll, C. (2000). Why do the rich save so much? NBER Working Paper, w6549, 1-32.

De Hoyos, R. E., & Sarafidis, V. (2006). Testing for cross-sectional dependence in panel-data models. The Stata Journal, 6(4), 482-496.

Delis, M. D., Fringuellotti, F., & Ongena, S. (2021). Credit, income and inequality. https://www.newyorkfed.org/medialibrary/media/research/staff_reports/sr929.pdf

Demirgüç-Kunt, A., & Levine, R. (2009). Finance and inequality: Theory and evidence. Annu. Rev. Financ. Econ., 1(1), 287-318.

Dwumfour, R. A., & Ntow-Gyamfi, M. (2018). Natural resources, financial development and institutional quality in Africa: is there a resource curse? Resources Policy, 59, 411-426. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.resourpol.2018.08.012

Ferri, G., Murro, P., Peruzzi, V., & Rotondi, Z. (2019). Bank lending technologies and credit availability in Europe: What can we learn from the crisis? Journal of International Money and Finance, 95, 128-148. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jimonfin.2019.04.003

Fischer, R., Huerta, D., & Valenzuela, P. (2019). The inequality-credit nexus. Journal of International Money and Finance, 91, 105-125. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jimonfin.2018.11.004

Fitoussi, J. P., & Saraceno, F. (2010). Europe: How deep is a crisis? Policy responses and structural factors behind diverging performances. Journal of Globalization and development, 1(1), 1-19. https://doi.org/10.2202/1948-1837.1053

Fitoussi, J. P., & Stiglitz, J. (2009). The ways out of the crisis and the building of a more cohesive world. https://www.ofce.sciences-po.fr/pdf/dtravail/WP2009-17.pdf

Frank, R. H. (2005). Positional externalities cause large and preventable welfare losses. American Economic Review, 95(2), 137-141. https://doi.org/10.1257/000282805774670392

Galor, O., & Zeira, J. (1993). Income distribution and macroeconomics. The Review of Economic Studies, 60(1), 35-52. https://doi.org/10.2307/2297811

Gujarati, D. N. (2022). Basic Econometrics. Prentice Hall.

Han, J., Raghutla, C., Chittedi, K. R., Tan, Z., & Koondhar, M. A. (2022). How natural resources affect financial development? Fresh evidence from top-10 natural resource abundant countries. Resources Policy, 76(48), 102647. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.resourpol.2022.102647

Hansen, L. P. (1982). Large sample properties of generalized method of moments estimators. Econometrica: Journal of the Econometric Society, 50(4), 1029-1054. https://doi.org/10.2307/1912775

Iacoviello, M. (2008). Household debt and income inequality, 1963-2003. Journal of Money, Credit and Banking, 40(5), 929-965. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1538-4616.2008.00142.x

Ioannidou, V., Pavanini, N., & Peng, Y. (2022). Collateral and asymmetric information in lending markets. Journal of Financial Economics, 144(1), 93-121. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jfineco.2021.12.010

Jordà, Ò., Schularick, M., & Taylor, A. M. (2016). The great mortgaging: housing finance, crises and business cycles. Economic Policy, 31(85), 107-152. https://doi.org/10.1093/epolic/eiv017

Kearney, M., & Levine, P. (2016). Income inequality, social mobility, the decision to drop out of high school. In J.C. Eberly & J.H. Stock (Eds.), Brookings Papers on Economic Activity (pp. 333-380). Washington, DC: Brookings Institution. http://www.brookings.edu/about/projects/bpea/papers/2016/kearney-levine-inequality-mobility

Klein, M. (2015). Inequality and household debt: a panel cointegration analysis. Empirica, 42(2), 391-412. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10663-015-9281-7

Kumhof, M. M., & Ranciere, M. R. (2010). Inequality, leverage and crises. Washington, DC: International Monetary Fund.

Kumhof, M., Rancière, R., & Winant, P. (2015). Inequality, leverage, and crises. American Economic Review, 105(3), 1217-1245. https://doi.org/10.1257/aer.20110683

Levine, R. (2005). Finance and Growth: Theory and Evidence. Handbook of Economic Growth, 1, 865-934. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1574-0684(05)01012-9

Magwedere, M. R., & Marozva, G. (2022). Financial Stability and Income Inequality in Developing Countries. Prague Economic Papers, 31(6), 464-481. https://doi.org/10.18267/j.pep.815

Magwedere, M. R., & Marozva, G. (2023). Household debt, inequality, and financial stability nexus. International Journal of Monetary Economics and Finance, 16(2), 139-156.

Malinen, T. (2016). Does income inequality contribute to credit cycles? The Journal of Economic Inequality, 14(3), 309-325. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10888-016-9334-6

Mansoorian, A. (1991). Resource discoveries and excessive external borrowing. The Economic Journal, 101(409), 1497-1509.

Manzano, O., & Rigobon, R. (2007). Resource curse or debt overhang. In D. Lederman & W.F. Maloney (Eds.), Natural Resources: Neither Curse nor Destiny (pp. 41-70). Washington, DC: World Bank.

Mian, A., Sufi, A., & Verner, E. (2017). Household debt and business cycles worldwide. The Quarterly Journal of Economics, 132(4), 1755-1817. https://doi.org/10.1093/qje/qjx017

Murphy, K. M., Shleifer, A., & Vishny, R. W. (1993). Why is rent-seeking so costly to growth? The American Economic Review, 83(2), 409-414.

Odhiambo, N. M. (2020). Financial development, income inequality and carbon emissions in Sub-Saharan African countries: a panel data analysis. Energy Exploration & Exploitation, 38(5), 1914-1931. https://doi.org/10.1177/0144598720941999

Pesaran, M. H. (2021). General diagnostic tests for cross-sectional dependence in panels. Empirical Economics, 60(1), 13-50. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00181-020-01875-7

Piketty, T., & Saez, E. (2013). A theory of optimal inheritance taxation. Econometrica, 81(5), 1851-1886. https://doi.org/10.3982/ECTA10712

Pouokam, N. (2021). Sharing Resource Wealth Inclusively Within and Across Generations. Washington, DC: International Monetary Fund.

Rajan, R. G. (2010). Fault lines. How hidden fractures still threaten the world economy. New Jersey: Princeton University Press.

Rewilak, J. (2017). The role of financial development in poverty reduction. Review of Development Finance, 7(2), 169-176. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rdf.2017.10.001

Roodman, D. (2009). How to do xtabond2: An introduction to difference and system GMM in Stata. The Stata Journal, 9(1), 86-136. https://doi.org/10.1177/1536867X0900900106

Sachs, J. D., & Warner, A. M. (1997). Sources of slow growth in African economies. Journal of African Economies, 6(3), 335-376. https://doi.org/10.1093/oxfordjournals.jae.a020932

Sargan, J. D. (1958). The estimation of economic relationships using instrumental variables. Econometrica, 26(3), 393-415. https://doi.org/10.2307/1907619

Schularick, M., & Taylor, A. M. (2012). Credit booms gone bust: Monetary policy, leverage cycles and financial crises. American Economic Review, 102, 1029-1061. https://doi.org/10.1257/aer.102.2.1029

Siddiqui, Sh. A., Zannou, O., Karim, I., Kasmiati, K., Awad, N. M. H., Gołaszewski, J., Heinz, V., & Smetana, S. (2022). Avoiding Food Neophobia and Increasing Consumer Acceptance of New Food Trends—A Decade of Research. Sustainability, 14(16), 10391. https://doi.org/10.3390/su141610391

Solt, F. (2020). Measuring Income Inequality Across Countries and Over Time: The Standardized World Income Inequality Database. Social Science Quarterly, 101(3), 1183-1199, https://doi.org/10.1111/ssqu.12795

Stiglitz, J. E. (2009). The Current Economic Crisis and Lessons for Economic Theory. Eastern Economic Journal, 35(3), 281-298. https://doi.org/10.1057/eej.2009.24

Stiglitz, J. E. (2012). Macroeconomic fluctuations, inequality, and human development. Journal of Human Development and Capabilities, 13(1), 31-58. https://doi.org/10.1080/19452829.2011.643098

Stiglitz, J. E. (2016). New theoretical perspectives on the distribution of income and wealth among individuals. In K. Basu & J.E. Stiglitz (Eds.), Inequality and growth: Patterns and policy (pp. 1-71). London: Palgrave Macmillan.

Stockhammer, E. (2015). Rising inequality as a cause of the present crisis. Cambridge Journal of Economics, 39(3), 935-958.

Torvik, R. (2002). Natural resources, rent-seeking and welfare. Journal of Development Economics, 67(2), 455-470.

United Nations. (2015). Transforming our world: the 2030. Agenda for Sustainable Development. https://sdgs.un.org/2030agenda

Van der Ploeg, F. (2011). Natural resources: curse or blessing? Journal of Economic Literature, 49(2), 366-420. https://doi.org/10.1257/jel.49.2.366

Van der Ploeg, F., & Poelhekke, S. (2009). Volatility and The Natural Resource Curse. Oxford Economic Papers, 61(4), 727-760.

Van der Ploeg, R., & Venables, A. J. (2012). Natural Resource Wealth: The Challenge of Managing a Windfall. Annual Review of Economics, 4, 315-337. http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev-economics-080511-111003

Venables, A. J. (2016). Using natural resources for development: why has it proven so difficult? Journal of Economic Perspectives, 30(1), 161-184. https://doi.org/10.1257/jep.30.1.161

Windmeijer, F. (2005). A Finite Sample Correction for the Variance of Linear Efficient Two-Step GMM Estimators. Journal of Econometrics, 126, 25-51. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jeconom.2004.02.005

World Development Indicators. (2023). Data Bank. https://databank.worldbank.org/source/world-development-indicators

World Governance Indicators. (2023). Data Bank. https://databank.worldbank.org/source/worldwide-governance-indicators

Zhang, R., & Naceur, S. B. (2019). Financial development, inequality, and poverty: Some international evidence. International Review of Economics & Finance, 61, 1-16. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.iref.2018.12.015

Creative Commons License

This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License.

Copyright (c) 2023 Economics and Environment

Downloads

Download data is not yet available.